卫三畏《中国总论》Samuel Wells Williams

卫三畏《中国总论》

本文來自卫三畏与《中国总论》陈佳莉  （湖南大学岳麓书院，湖南省长沙市，410082)

卫三畏Samuel Wells Williams (1812—1884)，美国第一批来华传教士，同时他也是一位有名的汉学家。其最 能体现汉学成就的莫过于《中国总论》。此书于 1848 年刊行初版，后在 1883 年进行再版， 是一部介绍晚清中国社会全貌的综合性著作，是为美国人了解中国人及社会的重要的门径。初版(1848)作为美国第一部撰述中国历史文 化的书籍，其在何种原因下创生，时隔三十五年再版。当今学者对此作品评价到:“很难再找到一本象《中国总论》这样的书，为了异族的 幸福，以那样的语言，展示了一个辉煌、可敬的文明和它具有的广泛而深远的影响力。

卫三畏1833年初抵广州，1874年作为美国驻华公使馆参赞，陪同艾忭敏阁下面见同治皇帝，呈递了国书。（《中国总论》1883年版序言）

1848 年卫三畏《中国总论》出版前，美国人还没有出版过一本有关中国历史文化的书籍。他在《中国总论》的序中，明确表达了撰写该书的动机。 其一，卫三畏“要为中国人及其文明洗刷掉通常加予他们的那些奇特的、几乎无可名状的可笑形象。美国商人虽然早在 18 世纪末就来到中国，但因中国政府的限制、语言的不通、自身对中国了解兴趣不强等原因，商人对中国所知甚少。18 世 纪中叶欧洲对中国的否定、传入美国的中国商品以及极少部分亲临中国的美国人的印象构成 了美国人早期对中国认识的基础。这些印象使他们“马上自以为是地”认为“中国人总体上来说是一群无趣的、奇异的和未开化的‘猪眼的’人民，‘长尾巴的天朝人’”中国人是“自 负、无知、几乎不可救药”.   他希望通过此书“传播有关中国更公正的知识”以纠正外 国人眼中对中国的偏见认知。

其二，卫三畏力图“增进基督教会在中国人中间传播福音的兴趣”。

19 世纪，美国的经济逐渐发展，国力逐渐增强，基督教在社会中的影响日渐深远，并形成了世界范围内的传教热潮。卫三畏作为一名传教士，在美国传统文化熏陶、基督教的使 命感、早期中美贸易以及家庭环境等因素的影响下，其选择来到中国进行传教工作:“一个 念头刺激着我一生从事这一工作，它就是这样一种希望—传教事业能够发展起来。在这个事 业的成功中蕴藏着对作为一个民族的中国给予其拯救，既在道德方面，也在政治方面”.  而美国实行政教分离政策的现实，又使得鼓动民间力量支持宗教事业的发展显得尤其重要， 因此他决定撰写一部全面介绍中国的书籍“希望此书来推动在华传教事业。

卫三畏在广州、澳门住了 12 年后，曾于 1845 年回到美国。为了传教的需要资金的资助、便到城 市和乡村做有关中国社会现状的系列演讲。当时美国正值对中国进行扩大投资，卫三畏的演讲受到美国民 众的极大追捧，反响热烈。一年时间里，他也对中国有了更为深刻的认识，加之演讲时积累下来的资料，促使他下 定决心撰写一部能反映中国社会全貌的综合性普及性的书籍。

卫三畏在对孔子学说是这样进行评述的：“孔子哲学最大的特点是对尊长的服从，以及温和正直地和同辈人交往。他的哲学要求人们在现实世界中，而不是从一个看不见的神灵那里，寻找约束力，而君主也只需要在非常有限的范围内服从一个更高的裁判。从子女对父母的责任、荣誉和服从出发，孔子进而向人们灌输妻子对丈夫、臣民对君主、大臣对国王的责任，以及其它社会责任。孔子认为，政治的清白必须建立在个人正直的基础上，在他看来所有进步的开j始都蕴藏在‘认识你自己’之中。无庸置疑，他的许多思想是值得赞扬的。就是与希腊和罗马圣人的学说相比，他的作品也毫不逊色。”这段论述十分准确也很精辟，抓住了以“礼”和“仁”为核心的孔子思想的精髓。这样的例子在《中国总论》中还有很多。

再版原因及两版本对比探析

修订《中国总论》的想法产生于 1876 年卫三畏辞去外交职务之后。当时此书已出版近30 年，为修正此前写作中信息编写的失误以及完善信息，卫三畏晚年决定修订此书，以使 本书的编写更接近中国的现实情况。日渐衰弱的身体状况限制了卫三畏完成整本书修订的心 愿，由其儿子卫斐烈完成了新版最后三章的撰写以及修订 余下的工作。1883 年 10 月，新版《中国总论》终问世。

此书还为卫三畏带来了 荣誉，使他从一位汉学初学者变成一位著名的汉学家。《卫三畏生平及书信》中有这样一段 表述“由于(中国总论)已经成为当时这个领域的权威。

卫三畏与中国及国人有长期联系，是许多重大事件的参与者、亲历者，其论述具有较高的史料价值。作为美国新教传教士在华时日最长的人，卫三畏在华自然接触了不少中国人。

在他做外交官时，与耆英、李鸿章等中国官员多有交往，《天津条约》的签订、天津教案等他是直接参与人，再版(1883)写作前他还亲历觐见了皇帝的活，可为修订的参照。

  (二)两个版本之对比分析

《中国总论》分上下两卷，1848 版内容篇幅有 1200 多页，1883 版则有 1600 多页。两 版全书各分 23 章和 26 章，除新增的最后三章内容，其他章节不变。其主体章节有:中国区 划及特征、各省地理情况、人口和数据统计、中国的博物志、中国法律和政府概略、法律的执行、教育与科举考试、中 国语言文字结构、中国经典文献、工艺、科学、宗教、商业、对外交往、中英第一次鸦片战争、太平天国起义、第二次鸦片战争。两个版本显著差异如下:

其一、两版《中国总论》中所附之地图及插图对比

初版《中国总论》中卫三畏在第一卷中附了一张地图，书名副标题为“附一幅帝国新地 图”。此地图的刻工为家雅各布·威尔斯·奥尔。该地图主要参考了已有的中外大量资料绘 制而成，据卫三畏自己谈这幅地图约 90 平方英尺，不仅绘制了中国的十八省，还划定了蒙 古、满洲和伊犁的边界线、注明了日本部分的县和藩、西藏、安南部分、俄国、准噶尔、土 耳其斯坦部分等。但由于当时中国大部分地区还未开放，因此长城以北地图的绘制，他自己 承认所根据资料不足。1883 版《中国总论》也附了一幅地图，名称为“中华帝国地图”。 再版(1883)的制版刻工是埃特伍德，地图在初版(1848)基础上作了进一步修订。更为精确地划定了疆界、补充了中亚地区的详细地图。为了更加客观及形象表现中国社会的面貌，作者还特意在两个版本中添加了大量插图。 这些插图均取材于西方人著作，后经卫三畏分门别类添加了进来。据有关资料显示，1848 版插图共 39 幅，1883 版共 72 幅，新版比初版插图多了将近一倍，其内容包括北京的天坛、 北京的安定门、北京的孔庙、等等，选取的这些插图几乎也都是卫三畏在中国所见之场景。

其二、内容之比对副标题的变化。再版(1883)副标题则是“概览中华帝国及其居民的地理、政 府、文学、社会生活、艺术和历史等”。细微的变化可看出再版(1883)更重视叙述中国文 学和历史的情况。就具体章节来看，再版(1883)较之初版(1848)做了如下明显补充修订: 第一章中，再版(1883)对中国国土面积内容修改较多，增加了中国割让英国、俄国领 土的情况;对长城的撰述由初版(1848)引用他人的游记到再版(1883)自己亲身体验后之 叙述;再版(1883)删去了初版(1848)中很多对中国的不实描述，如将描述满族湖泊时所 讲的满族神话删除，将初版(1848)引用《圣经·以赛亚书》“希尼之地”就是“中国”的 观点删除等;第二章里，再版(1883)主要对某些地区发生的历史事件进行补充修订。如谈 到了太平天国起义对江苏地区的影响，太平军毁坏南京大报恩塔的事件，补充了上海发展的 历史并对初版(1848)中对台湾叙述怪异的描述做了全面修改等;第三章增加了第二次鸦片 战争后割让九龙半岛的情况，更新了当地人的人口数字，在介绍广州十三行时，再版(1883) 又删去了大量关于十三行分布的情况;第四章增加了京城第二次鸦片战争后贸易的变化，更 新了满洲边界，删去了对库页岛的大段描述、删除了初版(1848)介绍西藏西北地区将近一 页的文字;第六章因博物学家在此方面提供了更多的资料，因此在博物志的动植物知识方面 卫三畏做了较大的改动，如再版(1883)除介绍《本草纲目》外，增加了 1848 年吴其浚《植 物名实考》的信息;第七章在谈到中国皇帝时，增加了慈禧太后垂帘听政的内容，补充了 1860 年外国人所见中国监狱的见闻，谈到八旗兵时，删去初版(1848)错误的记载，认为 八旗是满蒙汉三族组成的世袭的八个兵团;第八章谈到林则徐和耆英时，补充了初版(1848) 以后发生的事情;第九章谈到科举考试时，再版(1883)补充了咸丰年间科举舞弊案件。第 十章在谈到外国人制造中文活字的努力过程，再版(1883)增补了 19 世纪 50 年代的贡献， 补充了初版(1848)以后新教传教士对福州、汕头、广州三种方言的调查等;第十一章 1848 版有关孔子生平事迹介绍部分在孟子介绍之后，而再版(1883)将孟子放在后面等;第十二 章研究中国诗歌，补充了德庇时等汉学家在 19 世纪末的大量专述的内容;第十五章在描写 瓷器的工艺时，补充了儒莲 1856 年关于景德镇瓷器制造的资料;第十六章谈到中国的军队 时主要补充了一段太平天国起义期间常胜军首领戈登对中国军队的评论;第十七章在叙述清 代历史时，补充了道光末年、咸丰、同治、光绪初年的历史，直至1881 年;第十八章谈到丧葬问题时，补充 1875 年同治皇帝葬礼的情形，中国与穆斯林在回乱期间斗争的问题以及 丁匙良 1866 年到开封调查犹太后裔的情况等;第十九章主要续写了 1848 版后新教在华传教 史转载《大秦景教流行中国碑》译文，初版(1848)采用的是 1845 年裨治文的译文，再版 (1883)改而采用传教士伟烈亚力 1855 年新发表的译文。体现出对《大秦景教流行中国碑》 进行学术研究的新进展;第二十章补充了1858 年鸦片贸易合法化以后的中国鸦片蔓延的详 细情况，指出鸦片贸易合法化的恶劣后果。关于外贸分类的内容中将好望角路线改为苏伊士 运河，补充了 1860 年以来对外贸易增加的进出口品种;第二十一章补充了很多欧洲汉学家 的著作和西方旅行家的记述;在谈到近代中国与西方列强的关系时补充了 1848 年后的条约 情况。新增加的三章为太平天国、第二次鸦片战争、最近的事件，这一部分的内容现实问题 性很强，近代中国的面貌展现地淋漓尽致。

由上述可知，再版(1883)《中国总论》较之初版(1848)在地图、插图以及内容上都 有明显的改动。

三、《中国总论》的影响 其一，对“洗刷外国人眼中可笑的中国形象”以及“传播基督福音”的积极作用.

卫三畏在初版序言中表明了自己写作动机。为了达到他的目的，他竭力纠正外国人对中 国人的偏见并在书中对中国文明某些方面给予了肯定，他说:“中国人在生产总的方面，在 家庭生活的艺术和群众的舒适方面，比曾经存在的任何异教或伊斯兰教国家，或比有些自称 耶稣教的国家达到更高的地位。”他对儒家经典进行肯定:“孔子的著作同希腊和罗马哲人 的训言相比，它的总旨趣是良好的，在应用到它所处的社会和它优越的实用性，则超过了西 方的哲人。”这些言论，在一定程度上对纠正外国人对中国的偏见认知有重要意义，并影响 深远。当今学者对此作品评价到:“很难再找到一本象《中国总论》这样的书，为了异族的 幸福，以那样的语言，展示了一个辉煌、可敬的文明和它具有的广泛而深远的影响力。...... 这些篇章所刻画出的诚实和博爱，将告诉未来的读者，它的作者热爱并研究这个民族，让后 代记住作者对他们抱有的希望。”关于增进“传播基督福音”的这一点，卫三畏自踏上中 国的国土就没有停止过此念想，而在文中也随处可见他这一观念。据学者统计，第一次鸦片 战争前美国来华传教士的人数很少，长期生活在广州(澳门的只有裨治文、卫三畏、伯驾、 史第芬 4 人。1842 年后美国来华传教士的人数迅速增加，到 1850 年已经达到 88 人，1877 年新教入华 70 周年(是年召开第一次新教大会)时则达到 210 人。传教士的增多，使得卫三畏“传播基督福音”的写作目的得到了一定程度的实现。

其二、对美国汉学的影响

相比欧洲汉学，美国汉学研究较晚。而卫三畏的《中 国总论》正是一部关于叙述中国历史和现状的综合性著述。在书中他不仅叙述了中国社会的 状况，且对两次鸦片战争、太平天国运动等发表了自己的看法，可见他对中国的现实问题有 较为深入的研究，费正清曾称他是“一个天才的业余历史学家” 马森曾对此书称颂道“也许有关中国问题的最重要的一本作品是卫三畏的《中国总论》，它在西方广为传阅并受到好评......这部描写中国人生活方方面面的著作，是对这一时期普通作品中所涉及的问题的范围 和种类的最好说明，卫三畏用如此清晰、系统、博学的方式为读者呈现了他的资料，以至于 他的著作在今天的有关中国问题的美国文献中仍占有令人尊敬的地位。”[9]卫三畏也一直致 力于汉学研究中，在 1876 年回到美国后，他接受耶鲁大学聘请他为第一任汉学讲座教授的 荣誉，而后在他的主持下，耶鲁大学又建立第一个汉语教研室和东方图书馆。此后，美国的 加州大学、哈佛大学、哥伦比亚大学等也相继开设中文课程，进行中国文化的研究工作，一 些著名的图书馆也开始收藏研究汉学的图书资料。1881 年，任职耶鲁大学的畏三畏担任了 美国东方学会主席，而后汉学研究机构在美国陆续成立:美国现代语言学会、美国历史学会、 美国亚洲协会等。在卫三畏的带领之下，美国汉学研究逐渐兴起，开创了美国汉学注重研究 中国现实的路径。

其三、对中国社会的积极影响

鸦片战争以前，中国以自我为“中心”，将周边国家视为“四夷”，对世界上其他国家 认知甚少。来华传教士的到来丰富了中国人的见闻，中国人通过与以卫三畏为代表的来华传 教士和来华贸易之商人进行接触以及通过翻译过来的西方著作，对西方获得更进一步的认 识。《中国总论》作为当时中国最有影响的作品之一，对当时的中国人也产生了较大的影响， 其使中国人对自己也有了更深层次的认识，体会到中国与西方国家的差距，这为当时的国人 敲响了警钟。而徐继畲《瀛环志略》和魏源《海国图志》中有关美国的资料大多引用此书， 该书也为魏源“师夷长技以制夷”理论提供了理论上的依据。

其四、消极影响

卫三畏作为美国汉学的早期代表人物，其开展的文化活动其本质上是美国对外侵略扩张 的一个工具，他对待中国也是以传教士的眼光来对待的，不可避免有其局限性。如在《中国 总论》中他一方面对儒家思想进行称颂，指出“孔子的著作同希腊和罗马哲人的训言相比， 它的总旨趣是良好的，在应用到它所处的社会和它优越的实用性质，则超出了西方的哲 人。......四书五经的实质与其他著作相比，不仅在文学上兴味隽永，文字上引人入胜，而且 对千百万中国人的思想施加了无可比拟的影响。”另一方面他又认为儒家经典比不上西方《圣 经》，他说“这些书所造成的势力，除了《圣经》以外，是任何别种书都无法与之匹敌的。” 他对儒家学说及其影响的肯定是为了强调必须利用儒家经典推广在华传教事业;而为了突出 基督教的优越性，他过分渲染中国民族的“劣根性”，认为只有靠福音能够拯救他们。他指 出:“中国人表现为一个混合体，如果有什么东西可赞扬，就一定有更多的东西要批评”他 提出“现在中国的政治日趋混乱，鸦片和国民道德的沦丧正使整个民族日趋堕落。只有福音 能够拯救他们”。虽然卫三畏对英国发动鸦片战争持否定态度并更希望以和平的方式传教， 但他又认为中国人太过于愚昧无知，因此建议“如果西方四强抛弃对彼此的怀疑，联合起来， 迫使中国政府同意与西方各国进行更深入、更全面的交流，那么建立这种交流实际上是为中国找到了最可靠的安全保障。”他认为只有通过战争和暴力才能让中国人学会平等地对待外 国人，才能把福音传播到中国，拯救中华民族的灵魂。由上可知，卫三畏带有西方观念意识 的情感偏向对人们正确认知中国是不利的。

四、结语

《中国总论》的出版，与卫三畏长时期居住在中国的亲身经历、其传播基督教的热情、 返乡演讲之直接契机等因素有着密不可分的联系。时隔三十五年，中国社会已然发生巨变， 因再版(1883)已具备较好的条件和现实意义、卫三畏在中国活动范围的扩大及接触各阶层 人员的增多、《中国丛报》拥有充足资料等条件因素，此书于 1883 年 10 月重版。不管是初 版(1848)《中国总论》，还是再版(1883)中国总论，其内容所反映中国社会的真实性都 是较同期作品更佳的。作为美国汉学的开山之作，其中所体现的对中国近现代问题的关注也 为此前著作中没有的，这对美国汉学的研究路径以及先进的中国人汲取教训救国都有积极的 作用，而作为一名基督教的狂爱追随者，卫三畏难免会以基督教普世观看待分析中国社会问 题，这一点有失对中国的客观认识。但总的说来，此书出版的意义更大。

但随着时间的推移，《中国总论》的信息已经成为历史。今昔对比，可以作为晚清历史的參考。从研究出版史和汉学史的角度来说，有必要找来一读。

卫三畏与《中国总论》

陈佳莉

(湖南大学岳麓书院，湖南省长沙市，410082)

https://www.sinoss.net/uploadfile/2019/0522/20190522085151769.pdf

Wells Williams and an overview of China.  Chen Jiali

(Yuelu Academy of Hunan University, Changsha Hunan , 410082)

Samuel Wells Williams on Chinese Culture in the nineteenth century

Samuel Wells Williams on Chinese Culture in the nineteenth century 

Samuel Wells Williams (22 September 1812 – 16 February 1884) was a linguist, official, missionary and Sinologist from the United States in the early 19th century.

He sailed for China to take charge of the printing press of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM ) at Whampoa, Canton, aboard the Morrisonon 25 October 1833. The ABCFM was among the first American Christian missionary organizations. It was created in 1810 by recent graduates of Williams College. In the 19th century it was the largest and most important of American missionary organizations and consisted of participants from Reformed traditions such as Presbyterians, Congregationalists, and German Reformed churches, with the  objective of the ABCFM was to spread Christianity worldwide.  ABCFM expanded the role of women, it was the first unmarried female overseas missionary and the first African-American missionary, and by 1855 the Missionary Herald listed the  foreign missions in Africa, Europe, Western and Southern and Eastern Asia.

Samuel assisted Bridgman in the latter's Chinese Chrestomathy in the Canton Dialect, published in 1842, and Walter Medhurst in completing his English-Chinese Dictionary of 1848, two early works of Chinese lexicography. 

From 1848 to 1851 Williams was the editor of The Chinese Repository, a leading Western journal published in China. In 1853 he was attached to Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry's expedition to Japan as an official interpreter.

In 1855, Williams was appointed Secretary of the United States Legation to China. During his stay in China, he wrote A Tonic Dictionary Of The Chinese Language In The Canton Dialect (英華分韻撮要) in 1856. After years of opposition from the Chinese government, Williams was instrumental in the negotiation of the Treaty of Tientsin, which provided for the toleration of both Chinese and foreign Christians.

In 1860, he was appointed chargé d'affaires for the United States in Beijing. He resigned his position on October 25, 1876, 43 years to the day that he first landed at Guangzhou in 1833. Around 1875, he completed a translation of the Book of Genesis and the Gospel of Matthewinto Japanese, but the manuscripts were lost in a fire before they could be published.

He returned to the United States in 1877 and became the first Professor of Chinese language and literature in the United States at Yale University. Williams was nominated as president of the American Bible Society on February 3, 1881. He died on February 16, 1884.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Board_of_Commissioners_for_Foreign_Missions

The Selected Works of Samuel Wells Williams were published to review the historical figure who made a difference in the 19th century Asia-Pacific and summarize the experience of mutual learning, equal dialogue and constructive interaction between China and the U.S., Japan and the U.S., as well as the East and the West at large.

General introduction to China, written  in 1848 and 1883, is a comprehensive work introducing Chinese society in the late qing dynasty. The author mainly wrote this book for the three factors of "trying to wash away the ridiculous image of Chinese in the eyes of foreigners", "improving the Christian mission Gospel" and "the opportunity of make speeches after returning  home to", and republished this book for reasons of good conditions and practical significance (1883).  A comparison of the two editions was provided an analysis of supplementary revisions to the reissue (1883). Both versions of general introduction to China have been well received by the society with both positive and negative effects.

Williams stood  out as one of the first American missionaries to China, the first American professor in sinology and witnessed  to Japan’s opening to the world. He worked and lived in East Asia (mainly Canton, Macao, Beijing and Japan) for 43 years. 

Also see his “The Selected Works of Samuel Wells Williams”,  with Zhang Xiping (张西平), Wu Zhiliang (吴志良) and Tao Demin (陶德民) as the editors and Gu Jun (顾钧) as the associate editor, a cooperative outcome of Macao Foundation, Beijing Foreign Studies University and Great Elephant Publishing House (Zhengzhou, China).

The Life and Letters of Samuel Wells Williams was written and compiled by his son Frederick Wells Williams with  an intact demonstration of raw materials, it gives a truthful portrait of Williams.

During the first 20 years, he was mainly responsible for editing and publishing (中国丛报) . In 1856, he resigned from the American Board and accepted the position of Secretary of the U.S. Legation to China. In 1858, he witnessed the signing of the Treaty of Tientsin with Wm. B. Reed, U.S. Minister Plenipotentiary. After Williams’ return to the U.S., he was appointed as the first Professor of Chinese Language and Literature by Yale University in 1877. 

One of his books: A Chinese Commercial Guide （中国商业指南), 

Williams also wrote on Chinese weights and measures, natural history, literature, construction, etc. His  works still provides valuable sources for missionary studies and the research on American sinology, China-U.S. relationship in the 19th century and modern Chinese history at large.

The Middle Kingdom 《中国总论》is the first book in the U.S. that makes a comprehensive overview of China’s cultural history and current conditions (in late Qing Dynasty). It epitomizes American sinology in the 19th century.

As a linguist, diplomat and missionary, he was able to survey every aspect of China including the Taiping Rebellion, the Second Opium War.  Much of the revision was assisted by his son Frederick W. Williams. Since the American Revolution, Americans’ knowledge of China had been indirect and partial, and this book did provided an accurate and brilliant insight into China and the Chinese. For example, on the character of the Confucian system of ethics, it captures one of the essences of Confucianism – ritual propriety: “From the duty, honor, and obedience owed by a child to his parents, he (Confucius) proceeds to inculcate the obligations of wives to their husbands, subjects to their prince, and ministers to their king, together with all the obligations arising from the various social relations. Political morality must be founded on private rectitude.” (vol.1, p.530)

In Williams’ private letters to his wife in 1853–1854, it was faithfully transcribed by Prof. Miyazawa Shinichi (宫泽 真一). It falls into five parts: the Preface by Shinichi, the body part of Japan Journal, the Reference of the editors, the Appendix which comprises miscellaneous unpublished correspondence of Williams in 1853–1854.  

On Mar 31st 1854, the Treaty of Kanagawa was signed, a symbol of the establishment of U.S.-Japan bilateral ties. On Jul 11th, another treaty was signed between the U.S. and Lewchew, a strategic port to Japan. On Aug 11th, Williams ended his second expedition and returned to his home in Macao.

The book offered precious materials for the research on the diplomatic career of S. Wells Williams as well as Japan-U.S. relationship. During the two expeditions, Williams’ command of Japanese and Chinese contributed to the conclusion of the treaties, and moreover, his timely advice to Perry helped ease possible frictions with Japan. For example, in drafting the Kanagawa Treaty, the number of Japanese ports to be opened was cut to two from five, and consular jurisdiction was excluded upon Williams’ request. With his reason and dispassion, Williams served as a buffer agent between the assertive commodore and the vigilant Japanese. Meanwhile, he was steadfast and far-sighted. He made it clear that Japanese close surveillance would incur resolute actions from America, and he bluntly turned down Japan’s request to limit U.S. movement within Nagasaki, Williams laid the foundation for the enduring business interests of America in East Asia. As Shinichi puts it, the expeditions put an end to the isolation policy of Shogunate Government through peaceful, though threatening with men-of- war, means, and opened Japan’s long-closed doors to foreigners and their commerce, with its impact as far-reaching as what the Opium War left on China. With the two expeditions, Williams accomplished the state-conferred mission and embarked on the journey of professional diplomacy.

The Journal of S. Wells Williams: Expedition to Tientsin and Peking

(1858–1859) is a collection of private letters from Williams to his wife between Apr 17th, 1858 and Jan 13th, 1860. During this period, Williams was attached to the U.S. embassy, assisting Minister William B. Reed in the negotiation of the Tientsin Treaty, and accompanied his successor John E. Ward to Peking to exchange the ratifications. Meanwhile, he also went to Shanghai and Japan with the legation. The letters tell of Williams’ experiences and association as a diplomat as well as his concern for his family across the Pacific.

In April 1858, the warships of Britain, France, Russia and America assembled at the Taku Forts at a stalemate with China. Rounds of futile negotiations provoked conflicts between the Anglo-French Allied Force and the Qing army. The disparity in strength was clearly detected by Williams, but remained oblivious to the conceited and feckless Chinese officials.    “... my pity is more excited at their ignorant confidence, than my indignation at their refusing to grant us what is demanded. I’m afraid nothing short of the Society for the Diffusion of Cannon Balls will give them the useful knowledge they now require to see their own helplessness. (p.44)” As Williams observed, the citizens of Tientsin fled in large numbers during the war and moved back when it winded down. They remained indifferent to foreign faces and passive in resistance though in dire poverty. Such a disorder and suffering must have hardened Williams’ missionary resolve and impelled him to get the article into the Tientsin Treaty which permitted the free exercise of the Christian religion among the Chinese people.

After leaving Tientsin, Williams went to Shanghai in charge of investigating the losses of Americans at Canton and elsewhere. There, he learned the miserable news of his son Olyphant’s death. Later, in 1859, he went with the new U.S. Minister Ward to exchange ratifications at Peh-tang as the latter refused to perform the kowtow before the Emperor.

Williams works also included :

The Syllabic Dictionary of the Chinese Language 《汉英韵府》which was published in 1874, embodies the highest achievement of Williams in the Chinese language research.

A Tonic Dictionary of the Chinese Language《英华分韵撮要》Other works of his predecessors had also been consulted. For example, Williams referred to the Wu-fang Yuen Yin 《五方元音》in arranging characters, the K’anghi Tsz’tien

《康熙字典》and Medhurst’s translation in defining characters and expressions, and the Selected Characters Carefully Examined 《艺文备览》in defining etymologies.

The Introduction part of the lexicon is a multifaceted and profound thesis on the Chinese language, including Mandarin, orthography, aspirates, tones, old sounds, dialects, radicals and primitives. It also included the Abstract of the Chinese Dynasties, the List of Family Surnames of the Chinese, the Names of the 18 Provinces and the 28 Chinese Zodiacal Constellations. The body part contains 12,527 characters under 522 pronunciations. Every pronunciation is annotated by the manner of articulation, the old sound and the ways to pronounce its dialects, followed by all the Chinese characters of that pronunciation and different tones. Such a phonetic transcription system distinguishes the Dictionary from others.  Apart from its pronunciation and tone, almost every character is marked with the structuring or etymology and the meanings, and exemplified by common phrases and expressions. Compared with the Dictionary of the Chinese Language《五车韵府》by 120 Journal of Cultural Interaction in East Asia and A Dictionary of the Ko-keen Dialect of the Chinese Language《福建土话字典》by Walter Medhurst, this Dictionary has more concise, accurate and evenly explained definitions. Moreover, a cultural perspective was adopted to clarify character structures which offers Chinese learners a deeper insight into Chinese philosophy and society.  Notably, different from Robert’s long-winded analysis, Williams used the shortest sentences to convey the richest cultural connotation. Despite its breakthroughs, the lexicon is still flawed. In some cases, a meaning has no illustrative expression, or one expression overlap another (理 会 and 必理会这一句 on p.519). Although the emphasis on dialects makes the Dictionary special, they’re limited to those spoken in missionary and business destinations. This brings us to the conclusion that Williams’ study of Chinese is also utilitarian.

After its debut in 1874, the Dictionary received wide applause and became a must-have for Western Chinese learners. It had since been modeled on by lexicon compilers for its accuracy, conciseness and tidiness, and was later revised in accordance with the Wade system.

Samuel W. Williams in East Asia: Selected Archives from the United States and Japan is a treasury of archives on the study of Williams compiled by Tao Demin, professor of Kansai University and founding President of Society for Cultural Interaction in East Asia.

The abundant and wide-ranging archives embody the strenuous research efforts, the historical facts are provided in diverse forms, in multiple languages (the Kanagawa Treaty, the Additional Articles to the Tientsin Treaty) and in extracts of different books (Luo Sen’s Journal of a Visit to Japan). 

Both Perry and Williams were key players in the expedition to Japan and their journal and memoir are central to relevant analysis, by  taking all the materials into account, one will gain a holistic picture of an event. 

In studying the diplomatic life of Williams, one will find his important role in the conclusion of the Burlingame Treaty. The dual identity of Burlingame in China-U.S. diplomacy might also emerge as a new dimension of interest.

http://www.sciea.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/c044d077dab8fd338a6375f1d37da06d.pdf